Comparison of Marx and Hobbes

Comparison of Marx and Hobbes Contrast and compare the views of Marx and Hobbes as to the basis of law and order in society. Marx and Hobbes are great philosophers with phenomenal contribution towards the theory of human society resulting in the socialist revolution leading to communism by Marx and the ‘state of nature’ and ‘social contract’ by Hobbes. Although the two philosophers are distinct in their own theories, a comparative analysis of differences and similarities can be drawn based on the era they lived in and how this has influenced their beliefs which was then passed on to the upcoming human society. The political philosopher Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679) was one of the first modern view theory which provided an insight into why a governments legitimate authority should be obeyed. The rationale was based on genuine legitimacy derived from secular and material argument. Thomas Hobbes comes from the time of war, conflicts and many historians suggest that he was ruled by fear. This could have been a parameter to his view on human society. In his book titled ‘Leviathan’, Hobbes describes ‘the state of nature’ as the natural condition of human society which is a state of conflict and war. During this stage, a person is perceived to be rational egoist governed by appetites and emotions of hatred, pride, despair, etc. Furthermore the non-existence of government increases the inequality amongst highlighting the need of a state wherefore everyone must be equal. This inequality, to Hobbes, entail that people can kill each other which lead to great suspicious of one another and to avoid risk man avoids human contact. The primary goal to men becomes the security to escape the state of nature. The perception was that it can only be achieved by dominating all other men but since all are equal this becomes the ambition for everyone and it leads to a deadlock situation. Nonetheless, at some point people will also agree to appoint a law-giver and law-enforcer i.e. they elect a sovereign and this is the moment of the social contract. The sovereign can be defined as a ruler with unconditional power and unaccountable to the people he rules. However Hobbes argued that the freedom of speech and other rights belong in the state of nature, this censure is necessary to maintain order otherwise it will lead to conflict and a shift back to the state of nature. The social contract therefore is a contract between the people not between the people and the ruler. So in order to maintain peace and security, men give up their freedom to the sovereign to achieve protection in return. In Hobbes view, the evolution of human society happens in two stages from the state of nature to civil society. When men decide to elect the sovereign they are no longer primitive beings but citizens of a civil society. Hobbes’ interpretation was that an absolutists rule with sovereign that cannot be judged or punished. Hence, according to Hobbes there are only two possibilities for human society: either to be in a state of nature characterized by war and conflict or get peace in the civil society ruled by an absolutist sovereign by giving up their freedom. The German philosopher Karl Marx (1818-1883), was a sociologist, economist, journalist, historian and revolutionary socialist. He contributed a great deal of theories in economic fields which later formed strong foundation of current knowledge of labour and capital, and has impacted wide variety of successive economic thoughts. Marxs theory about society, economics and politics collectively known as Marxism belief that human societies progress through class and struggle. A conflict between an ownership class that controls production and a dispossessed labouring class that provides the labour for production. He called capitalism the dictatorship of the bourgeoisie, believing it to be run by the wealthy classes for their own personal benefit; and he predicted that, like previous socioeconomic systems, capitalism produced internal tensions which would lead to its self-destruction and replacement by a new system: socialism. He argued that class antagonisms under capitalism between the bourgeoisie and proletariat would result in working class conquest of political power as a dictatorship of the proletariat and eventually establish a classless society, socialism or communism, a society governed by a free organisation of manufacturers. In parallel to believing the fact that socialism and communism were inevitable at that time, Marx actively fought for their implementation, arguing that social theorists and underprivileged people alike should carry out organised revolutionary action to rule out capitalism and introduce socio-economic change. Marx has been described as one of the most influential figures in human history. Revolutionary socialist governments adopting Marxist concepts formed existence and power in a variety of countries in the 20th century, leading to the formation of largest socialist states such as the Soviet Union in 1922 and the Peoples Republic of China in 1949. Many labour unions and workers parties worldwide are influenced by Marxism which also led to establishment of various theoretical deviations, such as Leninism, Stalinism, Trotskyism, and Maoism, which were developed as a result. Marx is typically referred along with Emile Durkheim and Max Weber, as one of the three principal architects of modern social science. The fact that both philosophers comes from different times, governed by different events and situations, had great inspiration on their thoughts and their derivation on what the end state of society should be like. They have made their contribution to what human society currently has and will continue to evolve. They conclude that the evolution of humans into many forthcoming stages reflect advancing conditions for mankind in each other’s perspective. Hobbes commenced during the time of war and conflict, at which human beings basic requirement of security was deprived. Marx, who went through exploitative effects of capitalism on labour, in turn has a critical view on capitalism. However, he holds a very positive view of the future and also believes that the basic contradictions in the capitalist society would lead to its own collapse leading the way for revolution. He also assumes that the exploitation of labour would not exist in a communist society. The outcome of Marx’ stage theory is therefore a fair and very specific to the fact that the society is characterized by equality. Marx’s and Hobbes difference was in their views of the social contract between human beings. Hobbes states that people will voluntarily abandon their rights of freedom to an independent ruler standing outside the contract. This is quite fundamental theory of the social contract as most would see the independent governor as also bound by the contract. This theory was further summarised that an absolutist ruler is necessary to keep men in admiration. Marx however, has been through the isolating effects of the capitalism and hence proposes a communist ideal of a communal society. One of the famous Hobbes statements about the state of nature was, Life is brutish, short and harsh, in the state of nature. Humans are constantly in competition for resources, whether it’s primary or secondary. They would reach any extent necessary to meet those needs. This sense of desperation to fulfil needs create insecurity within the human society. Hobbes wrote the book Leviathan, the word Leviathan means the best way of protecting citizens would be by appointing a government that is powerful and intimidating. Hobbes believed that life is not immoral, but immoral in a state of nature. So, by killing an individual in a state of nature would be the same as the letting them live. The rationale is that a government must make laws and regulations in order to create a civilised society to result minimal crime. Regardless of these, Hobbes good works have been recognised as influential in shaping people and government with regards to a state of a civilised society. Hence, views of Hobbes and Marx had different path to reach to the same determination even though they had similar objectives of bringing improvement to the society. Hobbess Leviathan explains the good management of natural and civil laws, as it empowers people to make themselves the people of the society. On other side, Marx states history is economics in action. After analysing the differences and similarities of Karl Marx and Thomas Hobbes, we can gather that both philosophers settled on the notion of communism over individuality. Marx holds very calculative and measurable theories, as his theories are formed natural laws. Although, the differences between these theories are quite visible, their objectives and the message is the same which is the establishment and improvement of a civil society. Bibliography Hobbes, T. (1968) Leviathan, Harmondsworth: Pelican Books Raphael, D. D. (1977) Hobbes- Morals and Politics, Alden Press Oxford Bottomore, T. (1975) Marxist Sociology, The Anchor Press Ltd Swingewood, A. (1975) Marx and Modern Social Theory, The Macmillan Press Ltd Ritzer, G. and Stepnisky, J. (2014) Sociological Theory, 9th edition, McGraw-Hill Education, page 43-75 Biography- Thomas Hobbes [Online] Available at: http://www.biography.com/people/thomas-hobbes-9340461 [Accessed: 10th January 2014] The History Guide- Karl Marx [Online] Available at: http://www.historyguide.org/intellect/marx.html [Accessed: 10th January 2014] 1

The Life and Writings of St. Paul Essays -- English Literature Essays

The Life and Writings of St. Paul Paul, formerly a persecutor of Christians, was on the road to Damascus when suddenly God spoke to him. â€Å"Saul, Saul, why are you persecuting me?† (Acts 9:4) God asked. Paul was then blinded and led by his friends to Damascus, where a disciple named Ananias was waiting for him. Ananias cured Paul’s blindness and baptized him. From then on, Paul was devoted to spreading the Good News all over the world. Having returned to Damascus, he stayed there for a little while, preaching that Jesus is the Son of God. Because of this the Jews began to hate him and Paul had to flee from the city. Then he went to the city of Jerusalem to meet Paul, the head of the new Church. After leaving Jerusalem he was called by Barnabus to come to Antioch. One year later there was a large famine and both Barnabus and Paul were sent to the poor Christian community at Jerusalem. Having fulfilled their goals they returned to Antioch. Soon after this, Paul and Barnabus made their first missionary journey, visiting the island of Cyprus. Then they took a trip to Asia Minor and established new churches in Iconium and Lystra. After the Apostolic Council of Jerusalem, Paul made his second missionary journey, first visiting churches that had already been established by him in Asia Minor. At Troas Paul had a vision, which he translated as a call from God to convert in Macedonia. To do this, Paul sailed for Europe, and preached the Gospel in Philippi. He also went to ...

Nature-Nurture and the Cloned Human

The three levels in biopsychosocial theory (explained in Myers, 2006) are biological, psychological (e.g., cognitive and emotional influences), and social-cultural (unusual since these influences include those studied by social psychologists, e.g., family, peer, and other group influences).   The influences in the three levels generally interact with each other in accounting for the variability between individuals.   However, if a person wanted to be cloned, the person and the clone should be genetically identical, i.e., a result of the first level.   We do know that identical twins are essentially clones (Myers, 2006). Genetics can fully account for characteristics such as genetic sex, and also can influence or fail to influence other personality characteristics of identical twins.   Influence, however, means that genetics interact with influences from the other two levels.   Until the last paragraph of this paper, the assumption that evidence based on identical twins can be generalized to clones has been accepted. Similar article: The Case of the Boy Who Became a Girl The goal of psychologists studying personality is to account for the variability between individuals.   Behavioral-genetic research, which has been furthering this goal, has been motivated by findings that similarities between identical twins do not vary as a function of whether the twins were reared together or apart, there is considerable between-twin variability, and adopted children do not share characteristics with their adoptive families but do share them with their biological families (reviewed in Harris, 1995).   There have been consistent findings that 40-50% of the between-individual variability in personality characteristics is attributable to genetics, and the percentage of variability accounted for by genetics depends on the characteristic being studied (reviewed in Harris, 1995). Studies of genetics and IQ scores (reviewed in Neisser, et al., 1999) have provided evidence that genetics account for a large percentage of between-individual (but not between-group) variability in scores (whatever these tests actually measure!), though results can be mediated by other influences, e.g., by social expectations (from level three) and cognition (from level two). For example, children who do not care enough about their grades to appreciate the worksheet and memorization approach that passes for teaching at many schools (social expectations) may interpret these tests (cognitive influences) as yet another obstacle invented by the educational system.   Nonetheless, if you score well on an IQ test, there’s a high probability that your clone will too.   There are genetic predispositions for many characteristics, with varying degrees to which non-genetic factors interact with genetic ones, e.g., depression (Behar, 1980), attitudes (Turner, 1993), alcoholism (Hill, 1990), altruism (Ruston, 1989), shyness (Kagan, Reznick, & Snidman, 1988). Need for Further Research When people think of cloning, they seem to be asking questions such as, â€Å"if Einstein or Mozart were cloned, would the clone grow up to be a scientific or musical genius?†   First, the clones and persons would differ in some or many of   their experiences both before birth (i.e., in the womb, identical twins differ in their positions, access to nutrition, etc.) and   after.   The clones would be predisposed towards scientific or musical accomplishment.   However, Watson and Rayner (1920/2000) demonstrated that classical conditioning resulted in â€Å"Little Albert† becoming frightened of anything furry after only two trials in which the presentation of a white rat was followed by a loud noise.   So who knows what would happen if Einstein’s or Mozart’s clone tripped over an encyclopedia or violin? However, Einstein and Mozart were at the extremes of scientific and musical genius, where genetics are a greater influence than for Aunt Edna, who teaches science at Dung Hill High School, or for Grandpa Patrick, who entertains his family with heart-warming renditions of â€Å"When Irish Eyes are Smiling.†Ã‚   So there should be a high probability that Einstein’s and Mozart’s clones would make important contributions to science and music.   To my knowledge, there have not been identical-twin studies, where one or both twins received historical recognition for their accomplishments. A second type of question is related to possible differences in reproduction and cloning.     Increasingly sophisticated methods of monitoring brain activity, e.g., functional magnetic resonance imaging, have resulted in studies that have provided evidence that particular areas of the brain become activated as we develop new abilities and acquire new forms of memories, and that over the course of development, there are permanent changes in a person’s brain (reviewed in Damasio, 2002). Probably the most interesting possible change is related to our understanding that we have an internal world separate from others.   Piaget (1952/1963) studied how such a sense of self developed during childhood, and there’s evidence that different brain areas are activated in response to self-relevant information than in response to other information (reviewed in Zimmer, 2005).     Thus the question arises:   Is it possible for Aunt Edna and her clone to have a shared sense of self? References Behar, D. (1980).   Familial substrates of depression:   A clinical view.   The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 41, 52-56. Damasio, A. R. (2002).   How the brain creates the mind.   Scientific American Special Edition, 12, 4-9. Harris, J. R. (1995).   Where is the child’s environment?   A group socialization theory of development.   Psychological Review, 102, 458-490. Hill, S. Y. (1990).   Personality resemblances in relatives of male alcoholics:   A comparison with families of matched control cases.   Biological Psychology, 27, 1305-1322. Kagan, J., Resnick, J. S., & Sidman, N. (1988).   Biological bases of childhood shyness. Science, 240, 167-171. Myers, D. G. (2006).   Psychology eighth edition in modules.   New York:   Worth. Neisser, U., Boodoo, G., Bouchard, T., Boykin, A. W., Brody, N., Ceci, S. et al. (1999). Intelligence:   Knowns and Unknowns.   In R. J. Sternberg & R. K. Wagner (Eds.), Readings in cognitive psychology (pp. 486-532).   Orlando, Fl:   Harcourt. Piaget, J. (1952/1963).   The origin of intelligence in children.   New York:   Norton. Rushton, J. P. (1989).   Genetic similarity, human altruism, and group selection. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 12, 503-559. Tesser, A. (1993).   The importance of hereditability in psychological research:   The case of attitudes.   Psychological Review, 100, 129-142. Watson, J. B., & Rayner, R. (1920/2000).   Conditioned emotional reactions.   American Psychologist, 55, 313-317. Zimmer, C. (2005).   The neurobiology of the self.   Scientific American, 293, 92-101.

Combustible Dusts Hazard Is Needed to be Controlled Free Essay Example, 2500 words

A small primary deflagration occurred within the ductwork, forcing dust that had settled on the ducts surface to come out. The dust cloud produced acted as the fuel for a series of powerful explosions, lifting roofs and seriously damaging the walls. In February 2003, Kentucky acoustics insulation was the site for another fatal dust explosion. Reports from the investigations in the incident suggested that a small fire started in an oven ignited a dust cloud formed by nearby line cleaning. This was then followed by a series of horrifying dust explosions in the plant. Seven people died and thirteen injured in the incidence (OSHA, 2009). In another incidence, that left one person dead and another seriously injured, involved an explosion that stemmed from metallic dust. Aluminum dust was involved in the explosion followed by the second blast in dust collection equipment. This incident occurred in October 2003 in Indiana (OSHA, 2009). In the late 1970s, deadly explosions of gain dust in g rain elevators left fifty-nine people dead and forty-nine others seriously wounded. On February 7, 2008, in Port Wentworth, Georgia, a deadly explosion led to the death of fourteen people and left scores of other workers injured with severe burns. We will write a custom essay sample on Combustible Dusts Hazard Is Needed to be Controlled or any topic specifically for you Only $17.96 $11.86/page